Uthman was the heir of two very wealthy clans of the Quraysh, and he was also a second cousin of Muhammad. His great-grandfather was Umayyah, the patriarch of the clan known as Umayyads. They had been ruling in Mecca, and they assumed that this privilege just belonged to them.
Uthman knew how to read and write the new Arabic script that was just catching on. He was a very devout, serious Muslim who had used his wealth for alms and provisioning the army. He also had always been considered a shy, modest man who didn’t like to put himself forward. But on the other hand, he had been a central advisor to Umar, so he was able to step in seamlessly as Caliph. One of the first decisions he made was to impose only a monetary fine, blood-money, on Umar’s son who had killed five random Persians. He may have also paid it himself, letting the younger man go free. Why? He may have been a bit insecure at that point, and not ready to put to death the son of the much-admired former ruler.
Uthman had one looming problem: his clan. But it didn’t seem like a problem to Uthman, rather, his clan provided the solution to the problem of administering government to a large and growing empire. Each region needed a governor who would oversee local justice, but who would above all collect tribute and taxes, keep accurate records, pay the men on its list of stipends, and send the rest to Medina. He had to increase the state’s land holdings to house state-owned horses and camels, and businesses that were operated for charity to support the poor. He needed secretaries, messengers, tax officials, inspectors, and governors.
The governor of Damascus was already Uthman’s Umayyad cousin, Mu’awiya son of Abu Sufyan and Hind. Mu’awiya was by now an experienced soldier who took command of the Syrian army after his brother died of plague. He led the last conquests of remaining cities in the region, then settled into Damascus to watch over it all.
Nearer at hand, Uthman decided to reverse a ban that had been imposed on one of his clansmen by Muhammad. This man was one of the few whose opposition to Islam had not been forgiven when Mecca surrendered. He and his sons had to go live in the nearby town of Ta’if. It was a nice place to live, but he was sidelined from the power politics. Now, his son Marwan was recalled from exile by Uthman. Marwan became Uthman’s top secretary. “Secretary” here didn’t just mean typing up letters; Marwan was more like Chief of Staff or Executive Assistant. He had a finger in everything, and later (spoiler alert) he would use this power to become Caliph, himself.
Uthman ruled for twelve years, during which he appointed Umayyad relatives to many similar top posts, both in Medina and in the territories. Other Arab generals looked forward to retirement in a governing position, but they were passed over, leaving them resentful. The administrative state expanded more and more, but power remained concentrated in the hands of one clan.
Uthman rebuilt and expanded the mosque in Medina. Until then, it was the old courtyard with date palms for shade. Uthman bought adjoining houses and land to enlarge the courtyard, and he replaced the palms with pillars. Adjoining the larger new mosque, he built a new house for himself and his family. It was several stories high, with enclosed gardens. There were offices, guest houses, and official stables for horses and camels. It was decorated with marble pillars, carpets, sofas, and gold utensils. The Umayyads knew how to live. The Caliph’s kitchens expanded, too. Instead of simple hand-ground grains, the Caliph ate wheat bread and every delicacy that could come from the territories: rice, preserved fish, cheeses, and fruit.
The regional governors followed suit, and so did even some of the Companions of Muhammad. They bought land in the new territories and built estates and compounds. Zubayr owned houses in both Medina and Mecca, and also Damascus, and moreover Kufa and Basra, too. We have no reason to think that Ali and his family took this route, but others grew rich and left the wealth to their sons, creating an inherited upper class. The late Caliph Umar’s worst fears were coming true.
Uthman provided for mosques to be built out of state money. Muhammad always expected a community to work together to do this, but volunteer labor isn’t always practical. All of the new territories needed mosques. Uthman also provided for the call to prayer to happen not just at dawn, but at noon. Again, with so much expansion, so many people mixed together, they might not remember on their own. Since the muezzins now called twice a day, he made it a salaried position, and in a large mosque, they needed several muezzins. The mosques also needed sundials so that the muezzins could be sure of calling at exactly noon.
- After the Prophet, by Lesley Hazelton.
- The Heirs of Muhammad, by Barnaby Rogerson