The Early Muslim Army

Around the time of the Ridda (Apostasy) Wars, a lot of men began to realize that they weren’t about to disband and go home. After the fall of Mecca, some of them had tried out the idea. It’s possible that the first expedition to Syria that was sent out even as the Prophet was dying was a means to keep the need for armed men alive. Arabia is pacified? Yes but not really, what about the Arabs in the north? Don’t go home yet…keep that armor…

Arabian practice had been for all men in the clan or tribe to go out to war, but only some of them fought. That’s how you get a Battle of Uhud where 3000 men rode from Mecca, but only 22 died. We can see this pattern all through the early battle stories during Muhammad’s life: much of the battle was gained or lost by showing up, and by showing up in force. These early amateur armies had a tendency to run when the odds were too great.

But after six months of constant fighting, the men who were still in the ranks had become battle-tough fighters. Their commanders had gained experience, with tactical wisdom and a chain of command. It was clear to Abu Bakr, anyway, that when the last Ridda battle was fought, in early 633, it was time to move these forces onward and forward.

What were these forces like? There are not a lot of written records, but we know a little. They still fought in clan and tribal units, just as a matter of course. (Similarly, in the US Civil War, regiments consisted of men who all knew each other from back home.) They carried banners that showed insignia of their tribes, pre-dating Islam. As we know from the Muslim battles in Arabia, they had many good archers, and they used spears with steel points. But their primary weapon was a short, straight sword, not a curved scimitar as in later wars. Every man was expected to be proficient in sword use. Armor was chain-mail, and probably for most it only guarded the neck or other vital areas. It was expensive. The cheaper covering was just very tough leather, which could stop glancing blows but not a direct thrust.

One significant change that occurred during Muhammad’s time, and continued with the Caliphs, was that the ruler appointed a general commander over all of the tribes or city units. This commander was chosen for strategic experience, not clan hierarchy. Muhammad had set the army on its ear by appointing a teenager to lead, just before his death. He also appointed commanders without regard to how long they had been Muslims, so that recent enemies might now be leading into battle. These commanders organized the clan units into left and right wings, and advance and read guards. As long as they fought only other Arab clans, they didn’t need much innovation of military form. As soon as they began to face Roman or Persian armies, they had to counter that type of organization by copying it.

The Arabs traveled very light, since speed was their greatest friend. Attackers who can arrive a day before expected have a significant advantage. Each Arab warrior was expected to have his own camel and horse, following the Bedouin model. He could ride his camel or use it for provisions, while his horse was not ridden until they got close enough to need a lightning attack. His personal equipment was his set of weapons and armor, and some needles and linen thread. Large needles could fix saddle straps, while small needles could sew up a wound as well as fix sacks or tunics. Wealthy Muslims in Medina and other cities used their power to provide provisions for an expedition, and sometimes they provided personal equipment to a man who wanted to fight but could not afford these things.

But the army was not at first paid a regular salary. Once the Caliph’s treasury had provided for camels, horses, and food, the army would go forward and earn its own keep with loot. A city or tribe that lost could always expect to have its possessions taken wholesale. No exceptions, since that is how the army was paid. In the Muslim army, they paid a lot of attention to how the loot was distributed. Instead of every man grabbing for himself, they collected it all in a central place, and divided it fairly. Slaves were a major part of the payout, but in the coming conquests, herds of animals were not a large part (as they had been in the battles within Arabia). Armor and weapons were also assumed as part of the loot that would be handed out, so that victories kept the army’s equipment refreshed and increasing.

The armies of Abu Bakr would have units from the Bedouin tribes, as well as foot soldiers from South and East Arabia. Foot soldiers traveled slower, but they were the backbone of the army. Although later Arab armies were famous for riding into battle and fighting on horseback, it doesn’t seem like that’s what they did at this time. They rode to a battle quickly, perhaps rode into the battle, but fought on foot.

After the defeat of the settlement of Khaybar, the Muslim armies could use siege engines. These seem to have been the sort of catapult that is fired by having a team of men pull suddenly down on a rope, raising the arm to fling a rock. They were only useful in the case of assaulting a really fortified city.

With each region that was brought into the Caliphate, they got a fresh crop of engineers who knew how to use walls, water and wheels in war.